the fungi

Posted by alisarjuni padang on 9:38 PM
THE FUNGI

Chapter Overview

This chapter discusses the characteristics of the members of the kingdom Fungi. The diversity of these organisms is described, and their ecological and economic impact is discussed. In addition, certain protists-the slime molds and water molds, which resemble fungi-are also presented in this chapter.

Chapter Objectives

After reading this chapter you should be able to:
  1. discuss the distribution of fungi and their roles in the environment
  2. discuss the morphological characteristics of fungi
  3. describe the external digestion of organic matter by fungi
  4. explain the formation of both asexual and sexual spores for reproduction
  5. discuss the five major types of true fungi: zygomycetes, ascomycetes, basidiomycetes, deuteromycetes, and chytrids
  6. discuss the criteria upon which fungi are categorized
  7. discuss the slime molds and water molds and their resemblance to fungi
These are the most important concepts you are learning in this chapter:

1.       Fungi are widely distributed and are found wherever moisture is present. They are of great importance to humans in both beneficial and harmful ways.
2.       Fungi exist primarily as filamentous hyphae. A mass of hyphae is called a mycelium.
3.       Like some bacteria, fungi digest insoluble organic matter by secreting exoenzymes, then absorbing the solubilized nutrients.
4.       Two reproductive structures occur in the fungi: (1) sporangia form asexual spores, and (2) gametangia form sexual gametes.
5.       The zygomycetes are characterized by resting structures called zygospores—cells in which zygotes are formed.
6.       The ascomycetes form zygotes within a characteristic saclike structure, the ascus. The ascus contains two or more ascospores.
7.       Yeasts are unicellular fungi—mainly ascomycetes.
8.       Basidiomycetes possess dikaryotic hyphae with two nuclei, one of each mating type. The hyphae divide uniquely, forming basidiocarps within which club-shaped basidia can be found. The basidia bear two or more basidiospores.
9.       The deuteromycetes (Fungi Imperfecti) have either lost the capacity for sexual reproduction, or it has never been observed.

Study Outline
  1. Introduction
    1. Fungi-eucaryotic, spore-bearing organisms with absorptive metabolism and no chlorophyll; reproduce sexually and asexually
    2. Mycologists-scientists who study fungi
    3. Mycology-the study of fungi
    4. Mycotoxicology-the study of fungal toxins and their effects on various organisms
    5. Mycoses-diseases in animals caused by fungi
    6. Belong to the kingdom Fungi within the domain Eucarya; is a monophyletic group known as the eumycota (true fungi)
  2. Distribution
    1. Primarily terrestrial with a few freshwater and marine organisms
    2. Many are pathogenic in plants or animals
    3. Form beneficial associations with plant roots (mycorrhizae) or with algae or cyanobacteria (lichens)

  1. Importance
    1. Decomposers-break down organic material and return it to environment
    2. Major cause of plant disease; also cause disease in animals, including humans
    3. Industrial fermentation-bread, wine, beer, cheese, tofu, soy sauce, steroid manufacture, antibiotic production, and the production of the immunosuppressive drug cyclosporine
    4. Research-fundamental biological processes can be studied in these simple eucaryotic organisms
  2. Structure
    1. Thallus-body or vegetative structure of a fungus; fungal cell walls are usually composed of chitin, a nitrogen-containing polysaccharide consisting of N-acetyl glucosamine residues
    2. Yeast-unicellular fungus with single nucleus; reproduces asexually by budding, or sexually by spore formation; daughter cells may separate after budding or may aggregate to form colonies
    3. Mold-a fungus with long, branched, threadlike filaments
      1. Hyphae-the filaments of a mold; may be coenocytic (i.e., have no cross walls within the hyphae) or septate (i.e., have cross walls)
      2. Mycelia-bundles or tangled masses of hyphae
    4. Dimorphism-a property of some fungi, which change from the yeast (Y) form (within an animal host) to the mold (M) form (in the environment); this is referred to as the YM shift; the reverse relationship exists in plant-associated fungi
  3. Nutrition and Metabolism
    1. Most fungi are saprophytes, securing nutrients from dead organic material (chemoorganoheterotrophs); fungi secrete hydrolytic enzymes that promote external digestion
    2. Glycogen is the primary storage polysaccharide
    3. Most are aerobic (some yeasts are facultatively anaerobic); obligate anaerobic fungi are found in the rumen of cattle
  4. Reproduction
    1. Asexual reproduction-occurs by several mechanisms
      1. Transverse fission
      2. Budding
      3. Direct spore production
        1. Hyphal fragmentation-component cells behave as arthrospores or chlamydiospores (if enveloped in thick cell wall before separation)
        2. Sporangiospores are produced in sporangium (sac) at the end of an aerial hypha (sporangiophore)
        3. Conidiospores are unenclosed spores produced at the tip or on the sides of aerial hypha
        4. Blastospores are produced when a vegetative cell buds off
    2. Sexual reproduction
      1. Involves the union of compatible nuclei
      2. Some fungi are self-fertilizing (male and female gametes produced on the same mycelium (homothallic), while others require outcrossing between different but sexually compatible mycelia (heterothallic)
      3. Zygote formation proceeds by one of several mechanisms
        1. Fusion of gametes
        2. Fusion of gamete-producing bodies (gametangia)
        3. Fusion of hyphae
        4. Sometimes there is immediate fusion of nuclei and cytoplasm; however, more common is a delayed fusion of nuclei, resulting in the formation of a cell with two haploid nuclei (dikaryotic stage)
      4. Zygotes can develop into spores (zygospores, ascospores, or basidiospores); spores are used for identification purposes and also aid fungal dissemination
  5. Characteristics of the Fungal Divisions
    1. Division Zygomycota-zygomycetes
      1. Most are saprophytes; a few are plant and animal parasites
      2. Coenocytic hyphae (no crosswalls), with many haploid nuclei
      3. Asexual reproduction leads to the formation of sporangiospores
      4. Sexual reproduction leads to the formation of zygospores; these are tough, thick-walled zygotes that can remain dormant when the environment is too harsh for growth
      5. Representative member: Rhizopus stolonifer (commonly known as bread mold, but also grows on fruits and vegetables)
        1. Normally reproduces asexually
        2. Reproduces sexually by fusion of gametangia if food is scarce or environment is unfavorable
        3. Zygospores (diploid) are produced and remain dormant until conditions are favorable
        4. Meiosis often occurs at time of germination
      6. Zygomycetes are used in the production of foods, anesthetics, coloring agents, and other useful products
    2. Division Ascomycota-ascomycetes
      1. Members of this division cause food spoilage, a number of plant diseases (e.g., powdery mildew, chestnut blight, ergot,and Dutch elm disease)
      2. Include many types of yeast, edible morels, and truffles, as well as the pink bread mold Neurospora crassa
      3. Mycelia are septate
      4. Produce conidiospores when reproducing asexually
      5. Ascospores (haploid spores located in a sac called an ascus) are formed when reproducing sexually
      6. Thousands of asci may be packed together in a cup-shaped ascocarp
    3. Division Basidiomycota-basidiomycetes (club fungi)
      1. Includes smuts, jelly fungi, rusts, shelf fungi, stinkhorns, puffballs, toadstools, mushrooms, and bird's nest fungi
      2. Basidia are produced at the tips of the hyphae, in which the basidiospores will develop
      3. Basidiospores are held in fruiting bodies called basidiocarps
      4. Usefulness-many basidomycetes are decomposers; some mushrooms serve as food (some are poisonous); one is the causative agent of cryptococcosis; and some are plant pathogens
    4. Division Deuteromycota-deuteromycetes (commonly called Fungi Imperfecti)
      1. This is a classical division grouping together fungi that lack a sexual reproductive phase or fungi for which a sexual reproductive phase has not been observed; more recently molecular systematics places the Deuteromycota among their closest relatives in the Eumycota and eliminates the Deuteromycota as a separate division
      2. Most are terrestrial; a few are freshwater or marine organisms; most are saprophytes or plant parasites; some are parasitic on other fungi
      3. Human impact
        1. Some are human parasites (e.g., causing ringworm, athlete's foot, histoplasmosis)
        2. Some are used industrially to produce antibiotics, cheese, soy sauce, and other products
        3. Some produce substances that are highly toxic and carcinogenic to animals (e.g., aflatoxin and trichothecenes)
    5. Division Chytridiomycota-chytrids (simplest of true fungi)
      1. Terrestrial and aquatic fungi that reproduce asexually by forming motile zoospores
      2. Microscopic in size; may consist of single cells, a small multinucleate mass, or a true mycelium
      3. Reproduce asexually or sexually
      4. Some saprophytic; others are parasites of algae, other true fungi, and plants
  6. Slime Molds and Water Molds
    1. Resemble fungi in appearance and life-style, but their cellular organization, reproduction, and life cycles are more closely related to protists
    2. Division Myxomycota-plasmodial (acellular) slime molds
      1. The multinucleated protoplasm (plasmodium) moves by amoeboid movement as it phagocytizes organic matter
      2. Form ornate fruiting bodies when food and/or moisture are in short supply; fruiting bodies form spores with cellulose cell walls that are resistant to environmental extremes
        1. Spores germinate to produce myxamoeba or flagellated swarm cells
        2. Myxamoeba and swarm cells are initially haploid, but eventually fuse to form a diploid zygote
        3. Zygote feeds, grows and carries out multiple nuclear divisions, giving rise to a plasmodium
    3. Division Acrasiomycota-cellular slime molds
      1. During the vegetative stage, amoeboid cells called myxamoeba feed phagocytically on bacteria and yeasts
      2. When food is scarce, myxamoeba form pseudoplasmodia by aggregating and secreting a slimy sheath around themselves
      3. Become sedentary and differentiate into prestalk and prespore cells
      4. Form sorocarps that mature to sporangia; sporangia produce spores
      5. Released spores will later germinate to form haploid amoebae to begin the cycle again
    4. Division Oomycota-oomycetes (water molds)
      1. Resemble fungi, but cell walls are composed of cellulose, not chitin
      2. Produce a relatively large egg cell that is fertilized by a small sperm cell or an even smaller antheridium; zygote germinates forming asexual, flagellated zoospores
      3. Usually saprophytic in freshwater environments; some parasitic in fish and plants

defenition archaea

Posted by alisarjuni padang on 9:31 PM

ARCHAEA

Chapter Overview

This chapter summarizes the properties of a diverse group of organisms known as the archaea. These organisms are very different from the eubacteria and from the eicaryotes. The chapter describes some of the major characteristics associates with each of the major groups of archaea.

Chapter Objectives

After reading this chapter you should be able to:
  1. discuss the morphological and physiological diversity of the archaea
  2. discuss the difference between the cell walls of archaea and those of bacteria
  3. describe the lipid composition of archaeal cell membranes
  4. discuss the general genetic, molecular, and metabolic characteristics of the archaea
  5. discuss the habitats that are typical for the archaea
  6. discuss the classification scheme for the archaea that will be used in the 2nd edition of Bergey's Manual
  7. discuss the unique cofactors used by methanogenic and sulfate-reducing archaea
  8. describe the structural, chemical, and metabolic adaptations that allow the archaea to grow in extreme environments
These are the most important concepts you are learning in this chapter:

  1. Archaea differ in many ways from both eubacteria and eucaryotes. These include differences in cell wall structure and chemistry, membrane lipid structure, molecular biology, and metabolism.
  2. Archaea usually grow in a few restricted or specialized habitats: anaerobic, hypersaline, and high temperature.
  3. Bergey’s Manual currently divides the archaeobacteria into five major groups: methanogenic archaeobacteria, sulfate reducers, extreme halophiles, cell wall–less archaeobacteria, and extremely thermophilic S0-metabolizers.
  4. The next edition of Bergey’s Manual will divide the archaeobacteria into two kingdoms, the Crenarchaeota and Euryarchaeota, each with several orders.
  5. Methanogenic and sulfate-reducing archaeobacteria have unique cofactors that participate in methanogenesis.
  6. Archaea have special structural, chemical, and metabolic adaptations that enable them to grow in extreme environments.

Study Outline
  1. Introduction to the Archaea
    1. The archaea are quite diverse, both in morphology and physiology
      1. They may stain gram positive or gram negative
      2. They may be spherical, rod-shaped, spiral, lobed, plate-shaped, irregularly shaped or pleomorphic
      3. They may exist as single cells, aggregates or filaments
      4. They may multiply by binary fission, budding, fragmentation, or other mechanisms
      5. They may be aerobic, facultatively anaerobic, or strictly anaerobic
      6. Nutritionally, they range from chemilithoautotrophs to organotrophs
      7. Some are mesophiles, while others are hyperthermophiles that can grow above 100°C
      8. They are often found in extreme aquatic and terrestrial habitats; recently, archaea have been found in cold environments and may constitute up to 34% of the procaryotic biomass in Antarctic surface waters; a few are symbionts in animal digestive systems
    2. Archaeal cell walls
      1. Archaea can stain either gram positive or gram negative, but their cell wall structure differs significantly from that of bacteria
        1. Many archaea that stain gram positive have a cell wall made of a single homogeneous layer
        2. The archaea that stain gram negative lack the outer membrane and complex peptidoglycan network associated with gram-negative bacteria
      2. Archaeal cell wall chemistry is different from that of bacteria
        1. Lacks muramic acid and D-amino acids and therefore is resistant to lysozyme and b-lactam antibiotics
        2. Some have pseudomurein, a peptidoglycan-like polymer that has L-amino acids in its cross-links and different monosaccharide subunits and linkage
        3. Others have different polysaccharides
      3. The archaea that stain gram negative have a layer of protein or glycoprotein outside their plasma membrane
    3. Archaeal lipids and membranes
      1. Lipids have branched hydrocarbons attached to glycerol by ether links rather than straight-chain fatty acids attached to glycerol by ester links as seen in Bacteria and Eucarya
      2. Other, more complex tetraether structures are also found
      3. Membranes contain polar lipids such as phospholipids, sulfolipids, and glycolipids and also contain nonpolar lipids (7-30%), which are usually derivatives of squalene
      4. Membranes of extreme thermophiles are almost completely tetraether monolayers
    4. Genetics and molecular biology
      1. The archaeal chromosomes that have been studied consist of a single, closed DNA circle like those of bacteria, except that some are considerably smaller; Archaea have few plasmids; genomic analysis suggests are as distinctive genotypically as they are in other respects
      2. Archaeal mRNA is like that of bacteria (i.e., it may be polygenic, there is no evidence of intron-containing precursors, and its promoters are similar to those of bacteria)
      3. There are many other differences between archaea and other organisms, including:
        1. The observation of modified bases in archaeal tRNA molecules that are not found in bacterial tRNA molecules
        2. Ribosomes with different morphological and physiological properties than bacterial and eucaryotic ribosomes
        3. Archaeal RNA polymerase enzymes that are more similar to eucaryotic enzymes than to bacterial enzymes
    5. Metabolism
      1. Carbohydrate metabolism is best understood
        1. Archaea do not use the Embden-Meyerhof pathway for glucose catabolism; however they frequently use a reversal of that pathway for gluconeogenesis
        2. Some (halophiles and extreme thermophiles) have a complete TCA cycle while others (methanogens) do not
      2. Archaeal biosynthetic pathways appear to be similar to those of other organisms
      3. Autotrophy is widespread; reductive TCA cycle and reductive Acetyl-CoA cycle are used for carbon fixation
    6. Archaeal Taxonomy-the new edition of Bergey’s Manual will divide the archaea into two phyla: Euryarchaeota and Crenarchaeota
  2. Phylum Crenarchaeota
    1. Many are extremely thermophilic, acidophilic, and sulfur-dependent
      1. Sulfur may be used as an electron acceptor in anaerobic respiration, or as an electron source by lithotrophs
      2. Almost all are strict anaerobes
      3. They grow in geothermally heated water or soils (solfatara) that contain elemental sulfur (sulfur-rich hot springs, waters surrounding submarine volcanic activity); some (e.g., Pyrodictum spp.) can grow quite well above the boiling point of water (optimum @ 105oC)
      4. Some are organotrophic; others are lithotrophic
      5. There are 69 genera; two of the better-studied genera are Sulfolobus and Thermoproteus
    2. Sulfolobus
      1. Stain gram negative; are aerobic, irregularly lobed, spherical bacteria
      2. Thermoacidophiles
      3. Cell walls lack peptidoglycan but contain lipoproteins and carbohydrates
      4. Oxidize sulfur to sulfuric acid; oxygen is the normal electron acceptor, but ferric iron can also be used
      5. Sugars and amino acids may serve as carbon and energy sources
    3. Thermoproteus
      1. Long, thin, bent or branched rods
      2. Cell wall is composed of glycoprotein
      3. Strict anaerobes
      4. They have temperature optima from 70-97°C and pH optima from 2.5 to 6.5
      5. They grow in hot springs and other hot aquatic habitats that contain elemental sulfur
      6. They carry out anaerobic respiration using organic molecules as electron donors and elemental sulfur as the electron acceptor; they can also grow lithotrophically using H2 and S0 as electron donors and CO or CO2 as the sole carbon source
  3. Phylum Euryarchaeota
    1. The Methanogens
      1. Strict anaerobes that obtain energy by converting CO2, H2, formate, methanol, acetate, and other compounds to either methane or to methane and CO2; there are at least five orders, which differ greatly in shape, 16S rRNA sequence, cell wall chemistry and structure, membrane lipids, and other features
      2. Methanogens belonging to the order Methanopyrales have been suggested to be among the earliest organisms to evolve on Earth
      3. Methanogenesis is an unusual metabolic process and methanogens contain several unique cofactors
      4. They thrive in anaerobic environments rich in organic matter, such as animal rumens and intestinal tracts, freshwater and marine sediments, swamps, marshes, hot springs, anaerobic sludge digesters, and even within anaerobic protozoa
      5. They are of great potential importance because methane is a clean-burning fuel and an excellent energy source
      6. They may be an ecological problem, however, because methane is a greenhouse gas that could contribute to global warming and also because methanogens can oxidize iron, which contributes significantly to the corrosion of iron pipes
    2. The Halobacteria
      1. A group of extremely halophilic organisms divided into 15 genera
        1. They are aerobic chemoheterotrophs with respiratory metabolism; they require complex nutrients
        2. Motile or nonmotile by lophotrichous flagella
      2. They require at least 1.5 M NaCl and have growth optima near 3-4 M NaCl (if the NaCl concentration drops below 1.5 M the cell walls disintegrate; because of this they are found in high-salinity habitats and can cause spoilage of salted foods
      3. Halobacterium salinarum uses four different light-utilizing rhodopsin molecules
        1. Bacteriorhodopsin uses light energy to drive outward proton transport for ATP synthesis; thus they carry out a type of photosynthesis that does not involve chlorophyll
        2. Halorhodopsin uses light energy to transport chloride ions into the cell to maintain a 4-5 M intracellular KCl concentration
        3. Two other rhodopsins act as photoreceptors that control flagellar activity to position the bacterium in the water column at a location of high light intensity, but one in which the UV light is not sufficiently intense to be lethal
    1. The Thermoplasms
      1. Thermoacidic organisms that lack cell walls; only two genera are know: Thermoplasma and Picrophilus
      2. Thermoplasma
        1. Frequently found in coal mine refuse, in which chemolithotrophic bacteria oxidize iron pyrite to sulfuric acid and thereby produce a hot acidic environment
        2. Optimum temperature for growth of 55-59°C and an optimal PH of 1 to 2
        3. Cell membrane is strengthened by large quantities of diglycerol tetraethers, lipopolysaccharides, and glycoproteins
        4. Histonelike proteins stabilize their DNA; DNA-protein complex forms particles resembling eucaryotic nucleosomes
        5. At 59oC Thermoplasma takes the form of an irregular filament; the cells may be flagellated and motile
      3. Picrophilus
        1. Isolated from hot solfateric fields
        2. Has an S-layer outside the plasma membrane
        3. Irregularly shaped cocci with large cytoplasmic cavities that are not membrane bounded
        4. Aerobic and grows between 47°C and 65°C with an optimum of 60°C
        5. It grows only below pH 3.5, has an optimum of pH 0.7 and will even grow at or near pH 0
    1. Extremely thermophilic S0 metabolizers
      1. Strictly anaerobic, reduce sulfur to sulfide
      2. Are motile by means of flagella
      3. Have optimum growth temperatures around 88-100°C
    2. Sulfate-reducing archaea
      1. Gram-negative, irregular coccoid cells with walls of glycoprotein subunits
      2. Use a variety of electron donors (hydrogen, lactate, glucose) and reduce sulfite, sulfate, or thiosulfate to sulfide
      3. Are extremely thermophilic (optimum around 83°C); they are usually found near marine hydrothermal vents
      4. Contain two methanogen coenzymes

Chapter Web Links



Astrobiology Web
(http://www.astrobiology.com/extreme.html)
Life in Extreme Environments

Eukaryotes in extreme environments
(http://www.nhm.ac.uk/zoology/extreme.html)
Compiled by Dave Roberts, Department of Zoology, The Natural History Museum, London.

Archaea in Space
(http://www.accessexcellence.org/WN/SU/arch998.html)

Allergy Relief Products

Posted by alisarjuni padang on 4:36 AM

Allergy Relief Products

An allergy is an defence complement malfunction which causes a physique to have a excessively sensitive greeting to a routinely day-to-day substance. There have been opposite sorts of allergy; nasal allergy, asthma allergy, food allergy, insect allergy, skin allergy though a single might be reacting to usually a single sort or a little between all a allergies. One might be allergic to food, pollen, dust, insects, etc. So it is improved to initial exam for a piece causing a allergy.

An allergy exam of a single form or an additional is mostly indispensable to establish which piece is causing a inauspicious reaction, if a complaint seems to be imagining from a food an allergy exam might exhibit which a particular is not allergic to a suspected food though to a sure component benefaction in a food.

Although there have been many allergy contrast methods used to establish a participation of allergens, though a 3 many usual allergy contrast procedures have been skin tests, rejecting tests, as well as a radioallergosorbent exam (RAST). It is seen which a correctness of these tests varies during large as well as even a same exam achieved during opposite times might produce opposite results. It is additionally probable for a chairman to conflict to a piece during contrast though no greeting in normal exposure.

Allergy skin contrast is a many used of a 3 methods though it varies in methodology. With a blemish exam a tiny volume of a suspected allergen is placed upon a forearm or tip arm as well as afterwards introduced underneath a aspect by scratching or pricking. The skin is afterwards celebrated for flourishing or redness. Skin tests have been utilitarian in detecting respiratory allergies, penicillin allergy, insect allergies, as well as food formed allergies.

Food allergies have been additionally mostly investigated around an rejecting diet. Suspect dishes have been private from a diet for multiform weeks as well as afterwards re-introduced a single during a time with a chairman monitoring their reactions. The radioallergosorbent or RAST exam is achieved in a laboratory as well as tests for specific amounts of Immunoglobulin E (IgE) antibodies which will be benefaction in a red blood during a loyal allergic reaction.

There have been many allergy products upon a marketplace which ease we from usual allergies as well as use of these allergy caring products or allergy carry out products during initial pointer of allergy will assistance ease a symptoms sooner. These allergy service products have been being used as a surety according to a symptoms found from a allergy tests. Being wakeful of what any a single have been will safeguard which we select a medication, which will discharge your allergy symptoms.

Some of a tip allergy service products upon a marketplace have been elaborated in a following paragraph.

Nasal sprays are medicinal sprays which assistance transparent nasal thoroughfare as well as ease dry raw nasal passages. This mist can be used with cold, allergy, as well as sinus medications. They have been ethanol giveaway as well as non-medicated, as well as non-habit combining too.

Nasal strips assistance ease nasal overload due to colds as well as allergies, in further to which they additionally assistance revoke snoring.

Nasal gels used to relive exasperation in a dry nose, these gels ease a chafed as well as dry skin of a nose.

Vacuum cleaners as well as dusters have been products which have been able of capturing as well as stealing allergens such as dirt mites, as well as a many allergy causing particles. They have been used to transparent a dirt from a vicinity of a room floor, walls as well as from seat which means allergy.

Air filters have been disposable glue filters with a inside coated with a glass glue which captures dirt particles as well as lint. Air filters have been in all done of steel or assorted fibers.

Dehumidifiers have been special inclination to mislay dampness from ambience to revoke humidity. These inclination have been really beneficial in diagnosis as well as determining of respiratory disorders such as asthma, or bronchial allergies. Many unstable dehumidifiers have been accessible in a market. 

REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM DISORDERS

Posted by alisarjuni padang on 11:18 AM
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM DISORDERS

Infertility

    Primary infertility: the wife had never been pregnant even copulate and faced the possibility of pregnancy for 12 months.
    Secondary infertility: wife been pregnant, then the pregnancy does not happen again though copulate and faced with the possibility of pregnancy for 12 months.


Infertility problems can occur in:
• Problem sperm:

    Sperm concentration: 20-60 million / ml are considered normal, if less than 10 million / ml increasingly difficult
    Motility: motile sperm increasingly more effective
    Morphology: to determine the shape of sperm


• Vaginal Problems

    Blockages: psikogen, vaginismus, disparenia
    Inflammation: Candida albicans, Trichomonas vaginalis


• Cervical Problems

    Cervical canal blockage
    Abnormal cervical mucus
    Malposition of cervix


• Uterine Problems

    Uterine cavity distortion
    Myoma uteri
    Uterine polyps
    Impaired contraction of the uterus


• Problem tuba

    Tubal blockage, checked with pertubasi, examining the potential for tube with streets on CO2 gas blowing through a cannula or Foley catheter is placed in the cervix canal


• Ovarian Problems

    Presence or absence of ovulation


• Problem peritoneum

    Presence or absence of inflammation or other abnormalities that interfere with fertility


MENSTRUAL DISORDERS

And menstrual cycle disorders can be classified in:
1.Kelainan in the amount and duration of menstrual bleeding blood:

    Hipermenorea or Menorrhagia
    Hipomenorea


2Kelainan cycle:

    Polimenorea
    Oligomenorrhoea
    Amenorrhoea


3.Perdarahan outside of menstruation:

    Metroragia


Another 4.Gangguan are associated with menstruation:

    Dysmenorrhoea


HIPERMENOREA / menorrhagia

    Menstrual bleeding that much more and much longer than normal, cause uterine myomas, endometrial polyps cause contractility.


HIPOMENOREA:

    Menstrual bleeding is shorter than usual., Usually caused by endocrine disorders or myomectomy


POLIMENOREA:

    Menstrual cycles shorter than normal (<21 days). The cause was ovarian endocrine disruption or congestion due to inflammation, endometriosis, etc.. If accompanied by heavy bleeding called: Polimenoragia


Oligomenorrhoea:

    Menstrual cycle is longer than normal (. 35 days), can be caused by the influence of psychological or TB disease


Amenorrhoea:

    The absence of menstruation 3 consecutive months. Could be due to tuberculosis, lues, or due to tumor curettage (Asherman's syndrome)

METRORAGIA:

    Irregular bleeding and no relation to the menstrual cycle. Caused by abortion, pregnancy ektopic, corpus uteri carcinoma, carcinoma cervix and endometritis haemoragika.


DYSMENOREA;

    State of pain during menstruation. Psychic causes, anemia, chronic illness (tuberculosis), cervikalis canal obstruction, endocrine abnormalities.



KET (ruptured ectopic pregnancy)

    Limitation: Air implantation of the conceptus beyond the endometrium, usually in the Fallopian tubes, but can also be in the ovaries or abdomen


Etiology:

    Disruption of transportation of the products of conception
    Pelvic inflammatory (PID)
    IUD
    Narrowing of the lumen due to tumor
    Hormonal disorders:
    Ovulation induction
    Late ovulation


Clinical symptoms:

    Signs of pregnancy: amenoroe, nausea
    Enlargement of the uterus, which is accompanied by a mass / tumor adnexal region
    Abdominal pain, and pain during cervical shaken
    Bleeding, and consequently hypovolemic
    Stand of Douglas cavity due to blood clot


Treatment:

    Laparotomy: salfingektomi or salfingo-oophorectomy
    Overcome the shock with transfusions


CYSTOMA ovary

    Ovarian tumors are benign cyst, the corpus luteum derived from (non-neoplastic) but there is also a neoplastic.
    The cyst has a flat and smooth surface, usually stemmed, often bilateral, and can be great. Thin cyst wall and cyst fluid in the clear, serus and yellow.


Clinical symptoms:

    The existence of mass in the abdomen
    Pain when no torque on that stemmed kistoma


Management: operative, with resection of ovarian cyst removal

Myoma uteri

    Benign tumors in the uterine muscle, based on shared location:
    Myoma submucosa: located under the endometrium
    Interstitial / Intramural: terlrtak the myometrium
    Subserous: located under the tunica serosa


Etiology: not clear, suspected of cells are immature muscle cells
Clinical symptoms:

    Often no symptoms
    The existence of mass / lump under belly
    Bleeding
    Lower abdominal pain


Treatment:

    Conservative, if there is no complaint, with periodic checks
    Operation:
    Myomektomi
    Hysterektomi: the large and multiple myoma



Hydatidiform mole

    Limitation: a benign neoplasm of the trophoblast, where there is a failure formation of the placenta or fetus, with the villi that bubble like formations that resemble grapes.


Clinical symptoms:

    Early pregnancy signs that accompanied repeated bleeding
    Hyperemesis
    Not felt fetal movement or balotemen
    High uterus is larger than gestational age
    The exit bubble mola with bleeding
    Galli-Mainini positive titration until dilution 1/400


Treatment:

    Fix general state
    Curettage
    Give ergometrin 3 x I tablets for 5-7 days


Carcinoma of the cervix

    Malignant tumor of the cervix, and a majority of cases, patients aged between 30-60 years, most 45-50 years


Etiology:

    The direct cause is unknown, but closely related factors:
    Rarely found in the virgin (virgo)
    Often at the wedding, especially at first coitus girl at a young age <16 years
    Often on multiparity, especially at closer distances
    Often in women with poor hygiene suksual
    Often in women who changed partner change sek
    Often in women whose husbands were not circumcision (no smegma)
    Often in women who are infected with HPV (Human Papilloma Virus, type 16 or 18)
    Often in women smokers


Division rate of malignancy:

    Level I: carcinoma in situ, the basal membrane is intact
    Level II: micro-invasive carcinoma, has occurred but has not spread to the pelvic wall
    Level III: the spread was up to third distal vagina or parametrium to the pelvic wall
    Level IV: distant metastases have occurred


Clinical features:

    Whitish, the longer stink
    Bleeding after coitus
    Spontaneous bleeding
    Symptoms of distant metastases


To find an early diagnosis is necessary to check the cervix called cytology smears: Pap Smear

Treatment:

    At an early stage (in situ) performed a simple hysterectomy
    At level II performed radiotherapy
    At level III and IV and palliative radiotherapy
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